CCNA -5 Routing

Routing

To understand something in the networking world, you have to understand the problem it’s trying to solve. Memorizing the configuration options for a certain routing protocol won’t help you until you understand what it’s really doing. This installment of Networking 101 is designed to be a gentle introduction into the world of routing issues and concepts, arguably the most interesting and important part of networking, explaining the problems routing protocols address so you can understand why they do what they do.

Routing, in essence, is the act of finding a path from one place to another on which a packet can travel. To find this path, we need algorithms. They will generally be distributed among many routers, allowing them to jointly share information. Routing is said to contain three elements:

• Routing protocols, the things that allow information to be gathered and distributed
• Routing algorithms, to determine paths
• Routing databases to store information that the algorithm has discovered. The routing database sometimes corresponds directly to routing table entries,

 or simple words 

Routing is the process of moving packets from one network to another networkRouting involves two basic activities:

•          Determining best path
•          Forward packets through these paths 

There are 3 different types of routing 

•Static Routing
•Default Routing
•Dynamic Routing

Static Routing

     •      It is configured by Administrator manually

•          Mandatory need of Destination Network ID

•          It is Secure & fast

•          Used for Small organizations with a  network of   10-15 Routers

•          Administrative distance for Static Route is 0 and 1.

It is the “trustworthiness” of the routing information. Lesser the Administrative distance, higher the preference.

Syntax:

Router(config)#ip route <Destination Network ID> <Destination subnet mask> {<Next hop IP address> or <Exit Interface type><No.>}

Dest N/W ID: Network ID (of remote network)

Dest subnet mask: Subnet mask (of remote network)

Next hop ip address: IP Address of the Next Router (directly connected)

Exit interface type & Number: outgoing interface type and number

STATIC ROUTING – Example 1

Configure Static Route to allow LAN of Chennai to communicate with LAN of Hyderabad and vice-versa:

ON CHE :

CHE#configure terminal

CHE(config)#ip routing

CHE(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Serial 0

ON HYD :

HYD#configure terminal

HYD(config)#ip routing

HYD(config)#ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.0.1

To verify, the following commands can be give on all Routers

Show commands:

Router#show ip route

STATIC ROUTING – Example 2

ON CHE :

CHE#configure terminal

CHE(config)#ip routing

CHE(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 172.16.0.2

CHE(config)#ip route 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.0.2

CHE(config)#ip route 172.17.0.0 255.255.0.0 172.16.0.2

ON HYD :

HYD#configure terminal

HYD(config)#ip routing

HYD(config)#ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.0.1

HYD(config)#ip route 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 172.17.0.2

ON BAN:

BAN#configure terminal

BAN(config)#ip routing

BAN(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 S1

BAN(config)#ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 S1

BAN(config)#ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 S1

To verify, the following commands can be give on all Routers

Show commands:

Router#show ip route

Multiple IP in an NIC card

Adding multiple IP address in an NIC card

IP address is a logical address which plays an important role in networking. more about IP address

àStartàControl panel

àNetwork and sharing center

àChange adapter settings

àRight click on NIC adapter (local area connection)

àProperties

àSelect internet protocol version 4(tcp/ipv4)

àAdvanced

 here you can multiple IP ,Gateway,DNS to a single NIC card

and can communicate with many range of IP address from a single nic card

Basic computer troubleshooting

Common Windows errors and how to fix them

1.I have problems in Windows after installing new software

2.How do I fix illegal operations?

3.My computer is running slow what steps can I do to fix it?

4.How to erase my hard drive and start over

5.BLUE SCREEN

1.I have problems in Windows after installing new software

Reinstall or uninstall the program

If you're encountering problems with your computer or other programs after installing new software on your computer, uninstall the program and see if the issues persist.

·         Uninstalling Windows software.

Note: If after installing a program you're unable to boot into Windows, try booting into Safe Mode.

After the program has been uninstalled try installing the program again.

·         How to install a software program.

Check for software program updates or new versions

If you continue to experience issues verify that the program, game, or utility you're installing doesn't have any updates by visiting the developer of the program website.

If you're installing a software program or drivers for a hardware device such as aprinter. Get the latest software and drivers from the manufacturer instead of using the included software. A listing of links to drivers can be found on our drivers page.

How do I fix illegal operations?

When the operating system or computer processor receives an instruction from a program that it does not recognize and cannot process, it may issue a command known as an Illegal Operation. Basically, it's stating the computer program is making an illegal request.

TSR's or third-party programs

TSR's or third-party programs running in the background are one of the more commonly found reasons for Illegal Operations. If you are receiving an Illegal Operation when running a game or program it is recommend that you temporarily remove or disable programs running and TSR's running in the background, ensuring that these programs are not causing your issues.

·         How to remove TSRs and startup programs.

If, after removing these programs, you run the program or game and no longer receive the Illegal Operations, it is recommend that you reboot the computer and disable orEnd Task each program or TSR one at a time to attempt to determine what program is causing the Illegal Operation.

Error in program coding

Verify that the program causing the Illegal Operations is compatible with your version of Windows and check with the developer to make sure no patches or updates are available. There is no such thing as a perfect software program and it is not uncommon for multiple patches and updates to be released during a programs life cycle.

·         How to update a Microsoft Windows computer.

Data not being read properly from source

When running a program or game from a CD you receive an Illegal Operation, verify that the CD is clean. Additional information on how to clean a CD or CD-ROM drive can be found on our Cleaning Page.

If you are running a game from a floppy diskette or other drive make sure the disk or drive does not have physical errors with it by running a ScanDisk.

Installing a program or game on a hard drive that has errors or is highly fragmented

If running a program or game onto a hard drive make sure that drive is not fragmentedor corrupt by running ScanDisk and Defrag on the drive.

·         Microsoft ScanDisk help page.

·         Microsoft Defrag help page.

If errors exist on the hard drive, they will cause the program or game to run improperly and can cause Illegal Operations.

Corrupt files

Corrupt, bad, or missing files can cause Illegal Operations. Try uninstalling and then reinstalling the program causing the Illegal Operation to verify that any corrupt, bad or missing files are replaced or repaired during the reinstallation.

Memory managers

If you are running a memory manager that is used to obtain more memory or handle the computer memory in replace of Windows, it is recommended you temporarily disable or uninstall this program to verify it is not the memory manager causing the Illegal Operations. 

Bad, incorrect or not the latest video drivers

Bad, incorrect or not the latest video drivers may cause Illegal Operations when performing such tasks as moving the mouse or dragging data from one source to another as high demands are placed onto the video card. Try decreasing the resolutionto make sure your current settings are not causing the problem.

·         How to set the resolution in Microsoft Windows?

·         How to set the resolution or change the resolution/adapter in Windows 3.x.

If after adjusting the video settings you still encounter the same issue, verify the computer is utilizing the latest video card drivers by visiting our computer video drivers section.

Computer Virus

Because computer viruses and other malware is loaded into memory and can change the data of program files when infecting a computer, make sure an anti-virus protection utility is installed on the computer and that it is up-to-date.

·         Computer virus information and help.

Added hardware

If added hardware has been recently installed onto the computer it is likely that either the hardware is conflicting with other hardware devices on the computer or that the drivers used to install that hardware is causing issues with other hardware or software installed on the computer. This is especially true with computer memory upgrades.

If added hardware has recently been added to the computer, temporarily remove that added hardware and the software associated with it to make sure it is not causing the problems.

Corruption or problem within Windows

Because Windows controls the memory operations as well as the file structure and association, it is possible for Windows or files associated with Windows to become corrupted, causing Illegal Operations or other errors. If you've tried all the above suggestions we suggest trying to reinstall Windows.   

Bad Memory, invalid bits or physically bad memory

It is possible that bad memory can cause Illegal Operations. If you have recently added memory to the computer, it is recommended that it first be removed to verify that you are not experiencing conflicts with the recently installed memory. If no memory has been recently added to the computer and you have tried all the above recommendations test your computer memory.

My computer is running slow what steps can I do to fix it?

Tip: This page only cover an overall slow computer and not a computer that has a slow boot up orslow Internet.

Below are steps for Microsoft Windows users that should help speed up the computer or determine why the computer is running slow.

Reboot

If your computer has not been rebooted recently make sure to reboot it before following any of the below steps.

Background programs

One of the most common reasons for a slow computer are programs running in thebackground. Remove or disable any TSRs and startup programs that automatically start each time the computer boots.

Tip: To see what programs are running in the background and how much memory and CPU they are using open Task Manager.  If you are running Windows 7 or higher runResmon to get a better understanding of how your computer is being used.

If you've got an antivirus scanner on the computer, spyware protection program, or other security utility make sure it's not scanning your computer in the background. If a scan is in progress it can decrease the overall performance of your computer.

Free hard drive space

Verify that there is at least 200-500MB of free hard drive space. This available space allows the computer to have room for the swap file to increase in size as well as room for temporary files.

·         Determining available hard drive space.

·         Regaining computer hard drive space.

Bad, corrupted or fragmented hard drive

·         Run ScanDisk, chkdsk, or something equivalent to verify there is nothing physically wrong with the computer hard drive.

·         Run Defrag to help ensure that data is arranged in the best possible order.

·         User other software tools to test the hard drive for any errors by looking at theSMART of the drive.

Scan for malware

Today, spyware and other malware is a big cause of many computer problems including a slow computer. Even if an antivirus scanner is installed on the computer we recommend running a malware scan on the computer. Use the free version ofMalwarebytes to scan your computer for malware.

Hardware conflicts

·         Verify that the Device Manager has no conflicts. If any exist resolve these issues as they could be the cause of your problem.

Update Windows

·         Make sure you have all the latest Windows updates installed in the computer.

·         If you are on the Internet when your computer is slow also make sure all browser plugins are up-to-date.

Update your drivers

Make sure you've got the latest drivers for your computer, especially the latest video drivers. Having out-of-date drivers can cause an assortment of issues.

Memory upgrade

If you've had your computer for more than two years it's likely you're computer is not meeting the memory requirements for today. Today, we suggest a minimum of 1GB ofmemory (RAM). By having enough memory for programs to run within memory your computer will not need to swap information stored within memory to the swap file. If your computer hard drive light is constantly active, its a good indication of your computer is swapping information betewen your memory and hard drive because of the lack of space in memory.

·         Determining how much RAM is installed and available.

·         What type of computer memory to use in a memory upgrade?

Hard drive upgrade

One of the biggest bottlenecks of a computer is the hard disk drive. For anyone with a slow computer or just looking for something to upgrade in the computer to improve overall system performance going from a traditional HDD to a Solid State Drive (SSD)will significantly improve the overall system performance.

Run registry cleaner

We normally do not recommend registry cleaners. However, if you have followed all of the above steps and your computer is still slow try running a registry cleaner on the computer.

Computer or processor is overheating

Make sure your computer and processor is not overheating. Excessive heat can cause a significant decrease in computer performance since most processors automatically step the speed of the processor down to help compensate compensate for the heat related issues.

·         What temperature should my processor be running at?

Dust, dirt, and hair can also constrict a proper air flow on your computer, which can also cause a computer to overheat. Make sure your computer case is clean and fans are not obstructed.

·         Steps on cleaning your computer.

Erase computer and start over

If none of the above solutions resolve your issues, it is recommended that you eitherreinstall Windows or erase everything and then start over.

Old computer

If your computer is older than five years come to terms that it is likely the age of the computer that is causing it to be slow. Computers progress at an alarming rate as new programs and updates for programs come out their minimum requirements increase and will cause older computers to slow down. If your computer is older than five years we suggest purchasing a new computer or just realize after following the above steps it is going to run slower than a newer computer.

·         How often should I buy a new computer?

Hardware issues

Finally, if your computer continues to be slower than normal after going over each of the above recommendations (including erasing and starting over) it's possible that your computer is experiencing a more serious hardware related issue such as a failing component in the computer. This could be a failing or bad hard drive, CPU, RAM,motherboard, or other component.

How to erase my hard drive and start over

Notice: remember that following the below steps will erase all of the information on your hard drive and make it like new. Once the below steps have been completed, you will not be able to reverse the steps if you want to recover possible lost data.

·         How to help make sure all private information is securely erased.

·         Unable to restore computer using restore disc.

Erasing the hard drive

Tip: If you have an OEM computer (Acer, ASUS, Dell, Hewlett Packard, etc.) it's likely that you have a hidden System Recovery partition and don't need to use any CD or DVD to restore your computer.

·         How do I install Microsoft Windows XP.

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 2000.

The below steps are for users with MS-DOS 5.0+, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, and Windows NT 4.0.

1.       Place the bootable diskette or disc inside the computer and reboot to get to the DOS prompt. In some cases you may need to boot the computer with CD-ROM support or press a key to boot from the disk.

2.       At the MS-DOS prompt type format c: /s

3.       The computer will ask you "Are you sure you want to erase everything on drive c:" if you are ok with doing this press "Y" for yes and press enter.

4.       After doing this, the computer will begin the formatting process. While the computer is formatting make sure no errors are encountered.

5.       Once the format process is completed successfully, at the MS-DOS prompt typefdisk /mbr and press enter. This should return you back to the MS-DOS prompt with no message. This step is not required but recommended.

6.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, reboot the computer with the boot disk still in the computer.

7.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, insert either the diskettes for MS-DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, or the CD for Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows NT and click the appropriate link

MS-DOS users
Windows 3.x users
Windows 95 floppy diskette users
Windows 95 CD users
Windows 98 users
Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT can be installed several different ways. We recommend that Windows NT be installed using the below steps as we feel that these steps by far are the easiest way to install Windows NT 4.0.

First, we recommend that all users wanting to install Windows NT use the /b switch, which allows the users to not need to create the diskettes. We do, however, recommend that the user create the Emergency recover diskettes if they have not already been created after the installation of Windows NT.

Finally, before the installation of Windows NT, it is recommended that you run SMARTDRV, which will help the installation of Windows NT run a lot faster.

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WINNT and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WINNT> Type winnt /b.

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Windows 98 users

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 98.

Windows 95 CD users

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WIN95 and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WIN95> Type setup to begin the installation

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

If you are encountering issues during the setup process, you can add additional switches to the setup command line. These switches can be found on our Windows 95 Setup Switches page.

Windows 95 floppy diskette users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 95 into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation of Windows 95 it is recommended you contact Microsoft for possible replacement.

Windows 3.x users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 3.x into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft for a possible replacement.

MS-DOS users

1.       Place the first MS-DOS diskette into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to being the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft

 Notice: remember that following the below steps will erase all of the information on your hard drive and make it like new. Once the below steps have been completed, you will not be able to reverse the steps if you want to recover possible lost data.

·         How to help make sure all private information is securely erased.

·         Unable to restore computer using restore disc.

Erasing the hard drive

Tip: If you have an OEM computer (Acer, ASUS, Dell, Hewlett Packard, etc.) it's likely that you have a hidden System Recovery partition and don't need to use any CD or DVD to restore your computer.

·         How do I install Microsoft Windows XP.

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 2000.

The below steps are for users with MS-DOS 5.0+, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, and Windows NT 4.0.

1.       Place the bootable diskette or disc inside the computer and reboot to get to the DOS prompt. In some cases you may need to boot the computer with CD-ROM support or press a key to boot from the disk.

2.       At the MS-DOS prompt type format c: /s

3.       The computer will ask you "Are you sure you want to erase everything on drive c:" if you are ok with doing this press "Y" for yes and press enter.

4.       After doing this, the computer will begin the formatting process. While the computer is formatting make sure no errors are encountered.

5.       Once the format process is completed successfully, at the MS-DOS prompt typefdisk /mbr and press enter. This should return you back to the MS-DOS prompt with no message. This step is not required but recommended.

6.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, reboot the computer with the boot disk still in the computer.

7.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, insert either the diskettes for MS-DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, or the CD for Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows NT and click the appropriate link

MS-DOS users
Windows 3.x users
Windows 95 floppy diskette users
Windows 95 CD users
Windows 98 users
Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT can be installed several different ways. We recommend that Windows NT be installed using the below steps as we feel that these steps by far are the easiest way to install Windows NT 4.0.

First, we recommend that all users wanting to install Windows NT use the /b switch, which allows the users to not need to create the diskettes. We do, however, recommend that the user create the Emergency recover diskettes if they have not already been created after the installation of Windows NT.

Finally, before the installation of Windows NT, it is recommended that you run SMARTDRV, which will help the installation of Windows NT run a lot faster.

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WINNT and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WINNT> Type winnt /b.

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Windows 98 users

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 98.

Windows 95 CD users

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WIN95 and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WIN95> Type setup to begin the installation

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

If you are encountering issues during the setup process, you can add additional switches to the setup command line. These switches can be found on our Windows 95 Setup Switches page.

Windows 95 floppy diskette users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 95 into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation of Windows 95 it is recommended you contact Microsoft for possible replacement.

Windows 3.x users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 3.x into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft for a possible replacement.

MS-DOS users

1.       Place the first MS-DOS diskette into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to being the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft

 Notice: remember that following the below steps will erase all of the information on your hard drive and make it like new. Once the below steps have been completed, you will not be able to reverse the steps if you want to recover possible lost data.

·         How to help make sure all private information is securely erased.

·         Unable to restore computer using restore disc.

Erasing the hard drive

Tip: If you have an OEM computer (Acer, ASUS, Dell, Hewlett Packard, etc.) it's likely that you have a hidden System Recovery partition and don't need to use any CD or DVD to restore your computer.

·         How do I install Microsoft Windows XP.

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 2000.

The below steps are for users with MS-DOS 5.0+, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, and Windows NT 4.0.

1.       Place the bootable diskette or disc inside the computer and reboot to get to the DOS prompt. In some cases you may need to boot the computer with CD-ROM support or press a key to boot from the disk.

2.       At the MS-DOS prompt type format c: /s

3.       The computer will ask you "Are you sure you want to erase everything on drive c:" if you are ok with doing this press "Y" for yes and press enter.

4.       After doing this, the computer will begin the formatting process. While the computer is formatting make sure no errors are encountered.

5.       Once the format process is completed successfully, at the MS-DOS prompt typefdisk /mbr and press enter. This should return you back to the MS-DOS prompt with no message. This step is not required but recommended.

6.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, reboot the computer with the boot disk still in the computer.

7.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, insert either the diskettes for MS-DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, or the CD for Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows NT and click the appropriate link

MS-DOS users
Windows 3.x users
Windows 95 floppy diskette users
Windows 95 CD users
Windows 98 users
Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT can be installed several different ways. We recommend that Windows NT be installed using the below steps as we feel that these steps by far are the easiest way to install Windows NT 4.0.

First, we recommend that all users wanting to install Windows NT use the /b switch, which allows the users to not need to create the diskettes. We do, however, recommend that the user create the Emergency recover diskettes if they have not already been created after the installation of Windows NT.

Finally, before the installation of Windows NT, it is recommended that you run SMARTDRV, which will help the installation of Windows NT run a lot faster.

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WINNT and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WINNT> Type winnt /b.

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Windows 98 users

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 98.

Windows 95 CD users

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WIN95 and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WIN95> Type setup to begin the installation

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

If you are encountering issues during the setup process, you can add additional switches to the setup command line. These switches can be found on our Windows 95 Setup Switches page.

Windows 95 floppy diskette users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 95 into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation of Windows 95 it is recommended you contact Microsoft for possible replacement.

Windows 3.x users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 3.x into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft for a possible replacement.

MS-DOS users

1.       Place the first MS-DOS diskette into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to being the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft

 Notice: remember that following the below steps will erase all of the information on your hard drive and make it like new. Once the below steps have been completed, you will not be able to reverse the steps if you want to recover possible lost data.

·         How to help make sure all private information is securely erased.

·         Unable to restore computer using restore disc.

Erasing the hard drive

Tip: If you have an OEM computer (Acer, ASUS, Dell, Hewlett Packard, etc.) it's likely that you have a hidden System Recovery partition and don't need to use any CD or DVD to restore your computer.

·         How do I install Microsoft Windows XP.

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 2000.

The below steps are for users with MS-DOS 5.0+, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, and Windows NT 4.0.

1.       Place the bootable diskette or disc inside the computer and reboot to get to the DOS prompt. In some cases you may need to boot the computer with CD-ROM support or press a key to boot from the disk.

2.       At the MS-DOS prompt type format c: /s

3.       The computer will ask you "Are you sure you want to erase everything on drive c:" if you are ok with doing this press "Y" for yes and press enter.

4.       After doing this, the computer will begin the formatting process. While the computer is formatting make sure no errors are encountered.

5.       Once the format process is completed successfully, at the MS-DOS prompt typefdisk /mbr and press enter. This should return you back to the MS-DOS prompt with no message. This step is not required but recommended.

6.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, reboot the computer with the boot disk still in the computer.

7.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, insert either the diskettes for MS-DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, or the CD for Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows NT and click the appropriate link

MS-DOS users
Windows 3.x users
Windows 95 floppy diskette users
Windows 95 CD users
Windows 98 users
Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT can be installed several different ways. We recommend that Windows NT be installed using the below steps as we feel that these steps by far are the easiest way to install Windows NT 4.0.

First, we recommend that all users wanting to install Windows NT use the /b switch, which allows the users to not need to create the diskettes. We do, however, recommend that the user create the Emergency recover diskettes if they have not already been created after the installation of Windows NT.

Finally, before the installation of Windows NT, it is recommended that you run SMARTDRV, which will help the installation of Windows NT run a lot faster.

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WINNT and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WINNT> Type winnt /b.

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Windows 98 users

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 98.

Windows 95 CD users

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WIN95 and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WIN95> Type setup to begin the installation

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

If you are encountering issues during the setup process, you can add additional switches to the setup command line. These switches can be found on our Windows 95 Setup Switches page.

Windows 95 floppy diskette users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 95 into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation of Windows 95 it is recommended you contact Microsoft for possible replacement.

Windows 3.x users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 3.x into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft for a possible replacement.

MS-DOS users

1.       Place the first MS-DOS diskette into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to being the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft

 Notice: remember that following the below steps will erase all of the information on your hard drive and make it like new. Once the below steps have been completed, you will not be able to reverse the steps if you want to recover possible lost data.

·         How to help make sure all private information is securely erased.

·         Unable to restore computer using restore disc.

Erasing the hard drive

Tip: If you have an OEM computer (Acer, ASUS, Dell, Hewlett Packard, etc.) it's likely that you have a hidden System Recovery partition and don't need to use any CD or DVD to restore your computer.

·         How do I install Microsoft Windows XP.

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 2000.

The below steps are for users with MS-DOS 5.0+, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, and Windows NT 4.0.

1.       Place the bootable diskette or disc inside the computer and reboot to get to the DOS prompt. In some cases you may need to boot the computer with CD-ROM support or press a key to boot from the disk.

2.       At the MS-DOS prompt type format c: /s

3.       The computer will ask you "Are you sure you want to erase everything on drive c:" if you are ok with doing this press "Y" for yes and press enter.

4.       After doing this, the computer will begin the formatting process. While the computer is formatting make sure no errors are encountered.

5.       Once the format process is completed successfully, at the MS-DOS prompt typefdisk /mbr and press enter. This should return you back to the MS-DOS prompt with no message. This step is not required but recommended.

6.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, reboot the computer with the boot disk still in the computer.

7.       Once back at the MS-DOS prompt, insert either the diskettes for MS-DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, or the CD for Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows NT and click the appropriate link

MS-DOS users
Windows 3.x users
Windows 95 floppy diskette users
Windows 95 CD users
Windows 98 users
Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT 4.0 users

Windows NT can be installed several different ways. We recommend that Windows NT be installed using the below steps as we feel that these steps by far are the easiest way to install Windows NT 4.0.

First, we recommend that all users wanting to install Windows NT use the /b switch, which allows the users to not need to create the diskettes. We do, however, recommend that the user create the Emergency recover diskettes if they have not already been created after the installation of Windows NT.

Finally, before the installation of Windows NT, it is recommended that you run SMARTDRV, which will help the installation of Windows NT run a lot faster.

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WINNT and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WINNT> Type winnt /b.

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Windows 98 users

·         How to install Microsoft Windows 98.

Windows 95 CD users

1.       Place the CD into the computer.

2.       Type X: (where x is the CD-ROM drive, often this is D:).

3.       Once at the appropriate drive, type CD WIN95 and press enter to get into the Windows 95 directory.

4.       Once at X:\WIN95> Type setup to begin the installation

5.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

If you are encountering issues during the setup process, you can add additional switches to the setup command line. These switches can be found on our Windows 95 Setup Switches page.

Windows 95 floppy diskette users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 95 into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation of Windows 95 it is recommended you contact Microsoft for possible replacement.

Windows 3.x users

1.       Place the first diskette of Windows 3.x into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to begin the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft for a possible replacement.

MS-DOS users

1.       Place the first MS-DOS diskette into the computer.

2.       At the A:\> Type setup and press enter to being the installation.

3.       Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the installation.

Note: If you discover a bad diskette during the installation, it is recommended that you contact Microsoft

How to fix an invalid page fault

Remove all TSRs

Disable or unload any TSRs or background programs currently running before running the program causing the GPF.

·         How to remove TSRs and startup programs.

Delete all program temporary files

Delete all temporary files that may still be residing on the hard drive from currently or previously running programs.

·         How to remove temporary program files.

Run ScanDisk and Defrag

Run ScanDisk and run Defrag on the hard drive as it could be possible your hard drive may have an issue causing the swap file or data files to become corrupt or invalid

Update software or check for software patches

If you are experiencing invalid page faults in only one program, verify that the software program is compatible with the operating system you are running the program within. Also verify with the manufacturer or vendor of the software program that there are no available patches or updates for the program that may help or resolve your issue.

Recently installed software or hardware

If you have recently installed new software or hardware, uninstall or reinstall that software or hardware to verify it is not causing your issue.

Bad Memory, invalid bits or physically bad memory

It is possible that bad memory can cause Illegal Operations. If you have recently added memory to the computer it is recommended that it first be removed to verify that you are not experiencing conflictions with the recently installed memory.

If no memory has been recently added to the computer it is recommended you follow all other steps found on this page before replacing the memory within the computer.

How to fix a fatal exception error

Microsoft Windows and software use exceptions, which allow Windows or other software to communicate in layers and communicate errors or exceptions. If a program is given an exception that is invalid or unknown you'll encounter a fatal exception. Fatal exceptions are also commonly referred to as a Fatal 0E (or improperly as Fatal OE) and is one of the most common fatal exceptions.

Search for the error

Often the easiest and fastest method to locate the cause of a fatal exception is to search for the error. However, for some users it may be difficult to know exactly what to search for because of the cryptic fatal exception messages. Below are tips on how to search for these errors.

1.    As mentioned above the fatal exception will often have a two character code, for example 0E, if this code is present use this as part of your search.

2.    Next, the error message will contain a pointer such as "0028:c001e36", although this can often be found by also adding this to your search query it's important to realize that this pointer can vary from computer to computer. If you're not finding results exclude this from your search.

3.    Finally, many fatal exception error messages will also contain a file that generated the error, almost always this is a VXD file. If the fatal exception error contains a .VXD definitely include this as part of your search. The VXD file may also be listed as "VXD VWIN32", which is "vwin32.vxd".

If searching for the fatal exception error does not return results or help resolve your continue reading through this document for general recommendations in resolving fatal exception error messages.

Revert Windows back to an earlier copy

If this has just started occurring and you're running Windows XP or later restore Windows back to an earlier copy.

Update software or check for software patches

If you are experiencing invalid page faults in only one program, verify that the software program is compatible with the operating system you are running the program within. Also verify with the manufacturer or vendor of the software program that there are no available patches or updates for the program that may help or resolve your issue.

It is also important that you have all the latest Windows updates.

Hardware drivers

If you are getting a fatal exception when using a hardware device, for example, when you print. It's likely that it's the drivers related to that device that are either conflicting or have errors.

Video drivers are also notorious for causing fatal exception error messages. Because your video card is being used all the time it's difficult to know for certain if it's the cause of the error. Therefore we always recommend users have the latest video drivers on their computer.

Visit the manufacturers web page and get the latest software and drivers from them. See the computer drivers page for a listing of hardware companies.

Recently installed software or hardware

If you have recently installed new software or hardware uninstall or reinstall that software or hardware to verify it is not causing your issue. In the case of a hardware device it's suggested instead of installing the software or drivers that came with the device that you visit the manufacturers web page and get the latest software or drivers from them. See thecomputer drivers page for a listing of hardware companies.

Remove all TSRs

Disable any TSRs or programs running in the background as many times fatal exception errors can be caused by conflicts between two or more open programs.

Delete all program temporary files

Delete all temporary files that may still be residing on the hard drive from currently or previously running programs.

Overclocked computer

If you have overclocked any component within the computer, set the computer to its factory settings to verify that the overclocked component is not causing the issue.

Verify your computer has more than 200 MB available

If your computer is running low on hard drive space, your Windows swap file will be unable to increase in size when needed, which can cause errors.

·         Determining available hard drive space.

Run ScanDisk and Defrag

Run Scandisk and run Defrag on the hard drive as it could be possible your hard drive may have an issue causing the swap file or data files to become corrupt or invalid.

Heat related issue

Verify that all fans in and on your computer are properly working. If not all fans are working or you do not have enough fans and your computer is overheating, any number of issues including fatal exceptions can occur.

·         Is there a way to tell how hot my CPU is running?

Disable External Cache in CMOS

If the option is available, enter your computer's CMOS setup and disable the external cache. If this resolves your issue it is likely that you are encountering a heat related issue.

CPU Core Voltage

If available, verify within your CMOS Setup or by jumper that your CPU core voltage is set to factory specification. This may require that you consult your documentation or motherboard manufacturer.

Bad Memory, invalid bits or physically bad memory

Bad computer memory is also a common cause for fatal exception errors. If you have recently added memory to the computer, it is recommended that it first be removed to verify that you are not experiencing conflicts with the recently installed memory.

If no memory has been recently added to the computer and you have tried all the above recommendations test your computer memory for errors.

Extended Information

Below is a listing of the more commonly experienced processor exceptions ranging from 00 to 0F.

00 = Divide Fault
Occurs if division by zero is attempted or if the result of the operation does not fit in the destination operand.

02=NMI interrupt
Interrupt 2 is reserved for the hardware Non-Maskable-Interrupt condition. No exceptions trap through interrupt 2.

04=Overflow trap
Occurs after an INTRO instruction has executed and the OF bit is set to 1.

05=Bounds Check fault
The array Index is out of range

06=Invalid Opcode fault
This error can be caused by one of the below conditions.

1.    Processor attempting to decode a bit pattern that does not correspond to any legal computer instruction.

2.    Processor attempts to execute an instruction that contains invalid operands.

3.    Processor attempts to execute a protected-mode instruction while running in virtual 8086 mode.

4.    Processor attempts to execute a LOCK prefix with an instruction that cannot be locked.

07=Copressor not available fault.
This error can occur if no math coprocessor is present. This error can also occur when the math coprocessor is used and a task switch is executed.

08=Double Fault.
This error occurs when processing an exception triggers a second exception.

09(OD)=Copressor Segment Overrun.
Floating point operand is outside the segment.

10(0Ah/0A)=Invalid Task State Segment Fault
Can be caused by a number of possibilities as Task State Segment contains a number of descriptors.

11(0Bh)=Not Present Fault
The Not Present interrupt allows the operating system to implement virtual memory through the segmentation mechanism. 0B fault occurs when this segment is not available.

12(0Ch)=Stack Fault
Occurs when instruction refers to memory beyond the limit of the stack segment.

13(Odh)=General Protection Fault
Caused by any condition that is not covered by any of the other processor exceptions. The exception indicates that this program has been corrupted in memory, resulting in the immediate termination of the program.

·         How to fix a general protection fault.

14(Oeh)=Page Fault
Occurs when a paging protection rule is violated (when the retrieve fails, data retrieved is invalid or the code that issued the fault broke the protection rule for the processor).

16(10h)=Coprocessor error fault
Occurs when an unmasked floating-point exception has signaled a previous instruction.

17(11h)=Alignment Check Fault
Only used on 80486 computers. Caused when code executing at ring privilege 3 attempts to access a word operand that is not divisible by four, or a long real or temp real whose address is not divisible by eight.

How to fix a general protection fault

Note: It is not uncommong to randomly experience a General Protection Fault (GPF), you should not need to troubleshoot GPF errors unless they are occuring frequently.

Remove all TSRs

Disable or unload any TSRs or programs currently running before running the program causing the GPF.

·         How to remove TSRs and startup programs.

Delete all program temporary files

Delete all temporary files that may still be residing on the hard drive from currently or previously running programs.

·         How to remove temporary program files.

Run ScanDisk and Defrag

Run Scandisk and run Defrag on the hard drive as it could be possible your hard drive may have an issue causing the swap file or data files to become corrupt or invalid.

Verify your computer has more than 200 MB available

If your computer is running low on hard drive space, your Windows Swap File will be unable to increase in size when needed, causing programs to be swapped between memory and the hard drive more frequently. When this occurs it is more likely that a GPF can occur.

·         Determining available hard drive space.

Recently installed software or hardware

If you have recently installed new software or hardware uninstall or reinstall that software or hardware to verify it is not causing your issue.

·         Uninstalling Windows software.

Disable external cache

If your CPU utilizes external cache disable it temporarily to verify if it is causing your GPF error messages. If available, you will be able to disable your external cache through CMOS Setup.

If this resolves your issue it is recommended that you contact the manufacturer of your computer, motherboard manufacturer, or CPU manufacturer for additional recommendations.

Tip: In some cases a BIOS update designed for this problem can also resolve cache related issues.

Disable Power Management and screen savers

If you are receiving GPFs when away from the computer or during durations when your computer is inactive, disable Power Management and screen savers to ensure that they are not causing your issue.

·         Power management help and support.

Operating System issue

It is possible for Windows or an overwritten Windows related file to cause a General Protection fault.  Most commonly the General Protection Fault with Explorer and KRNL386.EXE. Reinstall Windows to resolve the issue.

Bad memory or other bad hardware

If you have followed all of the above recommendations and continue to experience GPFs it's possible hardware inside your computer may also be bad. Often bad memory is the primary cause for random GPFs.

How do I fix the Windows blue screen errors?

Before fixing a Microsoft Microsoft Windows blue screen or blue screen of death error (BSoD) you must first identify what error it is. Since there are different blue screen errors.

Note: If you're getting a blue screen and then your computer immediately reboots without being able to read the text in the blue screen, follow the steps below. If you're unable to get into Windows to perform the steps below, boot the computer into Safe Mode.

1.    From the Desktop right-click on My Computer.

2.    Click the Properties option.

3.    In the System Properties window click the Advanced tab or the Advanced system settings link.

4.    In Advanced click the Settings button under Startup and Recovery.

5.    In the Startup and Recovery window uncheck the Automatically restart check box.

6.    Click Ok.

Note: If you're getting a solid blue screen with no white text, you are not encountering a BSoD. It's likely a problem with your video card, monitor, or other hardware. Follow the no display on monitor troubleshooting steps to diagnose this problem.

Blue screen errors

Windows NT, 2000, XP, Vista, and later versions of Windows will have a blue screen error that's similar to the example shown below. These error messages often contain more detailed information, and will contain information that can be searched for and found. If you're not getting a blue screen error that looks like the below skip to the next Fatal exception section.

1.    Identify the blue screen by locating a line containing all capital letters with underscoresinstead of spaces, such as the above example, BAD_POOL_HEADER. Write this information down. If you do not see anything written in all caps with underscores like this, skip this step.

2.    Get either the STOP: error message at the top of the error, or in the "Technical Information:" portion of the error. For example, in the above error it's STOP: 0x00000019 ... write the first potion of this error message down.

3.    Finally, if technical information is shown write down the file and the address.

Once you have the above information you can start troubleshooting the issue. Below are common blue screen errors and links to pages that contain the troubleshooting steps for each of these errors. If your error is not listed in the below section search for the error you wrote down.

BAD_POOL_HEADER
DRIVER_IRQL_NOT_LESS_OR_EQUAL
DRIVER_POWER_STATE_FAILURE
INACCESSIBLE_BOOT_DEVICE
IRQL_NOT_LESS_OR_EQUAL
NTFS_FILE_SYSTEM
PAGE_FAULT_IN_NONPAGED_AREA
STATUS_IMAGE_CHECKSUM_MISMATCH
THREAD_STUCK_IN_DEVICE_DRIVER
UNEXPECTED_KERNEL_MODE_TRAP
UNKNOWN_HARD_ERROR

Fatal exceptions

Many of the blue screen error messages you'll encounter with earlier versions of Windows will be fatal exception error messages or Fatal 0E messages. If your blue screen message starts out with A fatal exception 0E ... or An exception ... you're encountering this error. For these blue screen errors follow the fatal exception error troubleshooting steps.

Regaining computer hard drive space

Microsoft Windows 98, ME, 2000, XP, Vista and 7 users
Microsoft Windows 95 users
MS-DOS and Windows 3.x users

Microsoft Windows 98, ME, 2000, XP, Vista and 7 users

Run the Disk Cleanup option

1.    Open My Computer.

2.    Right-click on the hard drive that you wish to regain hard drive space. For example, right-click on the C: drive.

3.    Click Properties.

4.    Within the General tab, click the "Disk Cleanup" button located next to the pie chart.

5.    Windows will scan the computer for all files available to clean up.

6.    Once in the Disk Cleanup window check each of the boxes (except "compress old files") that are taking disk space and click Ok and then Yes if you wish to proceed.

Compress?

When performing a Disk Cleanup you'll have an option to compress your hard drive. We strongly recommend users do not compress their hard drive or compress their old files.

Uninstall old programs or games no longer used

·         Uninstalling Windows software.

Disable System Restore

Windows XP, Vista, and 7 users can also decrease the default space utilized by Windows System Restore and often gain several additional gigabytes of hard drive space. See the below steps in customizing this feature.

1.    Click Start, Programs, Accessories, System Tools, and open System Restore.

2.    Within the System Restore window, click System Restore Settings.

3.    Within the System Restore tab you can either check the Turn off System Restore on all drives to completely disable this feature, or click the Settings button and decrease the space usage, which is what we would recommend.

Additional suggestion for Windows 2000 and Windows XP users:

Window 2000 and Windows XP keeps all the necessary files needed to uninstall any of the updates ever installed on your computer. Often this is several dozen updates that can take up several hundred and sometimes over 1 gig of space on your hard drive.

·         What are the $NtUninstallKBxxxxxx$ folders in Windows?

Disable hibernation

If you turn your computer off instead of using hibernation mode you can disable this feature to free up a lot of disk space.

·         How do I disable hibernation mode in Windows?

Microsoft Windows 95 users

Users can regain computer hard drive space by performing any or all of the below steps.

Clean up temporary files

1.    Click Start and then Search or Find

2.    In the "File type" text field type: *.tmp and verify the computer is looking at the C: drive or the drive that contains your operating system.

3.    Search for files and delete each of the temporary files that are found.

Delete chk files

Perform the same steps as number one except search for *.chk and delete any of the files that are found.

Uninstall old programs or games no longer used

·         Uninstalling Windows software.

MS-DOS and Windows 3.x users

Users can regain computer hard drive space by performing any or all of the below steps.

1.    From the MS-DOS prompt, type del *.tmp /s and del *.chk /s. This command will delete any temporary files or scandisk error files on the hard drive.

2.    Delete any software programs or games you are no longer using from MS-DOS or from Windows.

·         See the del command and deltree command pages for further information about each of these commands.

Windows restarts without warning

Tip: This document is for computers that are restarting or rebooting by themselves and not computer's that turn off and remain off.

Software issue or error

With the introduction of Windows XP Microsoft designed Windows to automatically reboot each time an error occurs such as a BSoD. Although this may be nice for errors that do not occur often, users who have a re-occurring error may wish to identify the error to troubleshoot it. Below are the steps on how this feature can be disabled and enabled in Windows XP, Vista, 7, and 8.

1.    From the Desktop right-click on My Computer.

2.    Click the Properties option.

3.    In the System Properties window click the Advanced tab or the Advanced system settings link.

4.    In Advanced click the Settings button under Startup and Recovery.

5.    In the Startup and Recovery window uncheck the Automatically restart check box.

6.    Click Ok.

Now if the computer generates an error it should not automatically restart and should display an error message, most likely a BSoD.

·         How do I fix the Windows blue screen errors?

Hardware issue or error

Caution: Some of the below steps require you open your computer. While in the computer, be cautious of ESD.

Any failing hardware component in your computer could cause your computer to unexpectedly generate an error or reboot without warning. If you have recently attempted to add a new hardware device, remove that device to make sure it is not causing your issues.

Make sure you are not encountering any hardware conflicts by viewing Device Manager for errors.

New drivers can also cause this issue, if you have recently performed any hardware driver updates you may wish to try an earlier version of the drivers. Additional information and help with computer drivers can be found on our drivers page.

If you have updated drivers and removed any hardware that could be causing this issue and continue to experience random reboots, it's possible that the memory is bad in the computer.

·         How can I test my memory to determine if it is bad?

Finally, hardware devices that are not installed properly in the computer can also cause random reboots. Make sure all the cables and expansion cards are connected properly to the computer. The best way to determine this is to disconnect and reconnect all cables and expansion cards.

Computer virus

Computer viruses such as the blaster virus are written to reboot your computer without warning. Usually these viruses will make the computer reboot ever 5, 10, 15 or 30 minutes after the computer has booted.

If you believe your computer may be infected with a virus or are uncertain if your computer is infected with a virus make sure your virus scanner definitions are up to date.

·         How do I update my antivirus program?

Heat related issue

Many computer today are designed to turn off or automatically reboot if the computer, processor, or other device in your computer gets to hot. If you have heard any abnormal noises coming from your computer recently such as a high squealing this could indicate a fan may be failing in your computer.

First, verify the fan on the power supply is working by examining the back of the computer and seeing if the fan is moving and moving smoothly. For all other fans in the computer you will need to either open the computer and verify all fans are working, e.g. processor fan andcase fan.

Tip: If your BIOS monitors the RPM of the fans enter CMOS Setup and verify it does not report any errors.

·         What temperature should my processor be running at?

Issue with operating system

If after following each of the above recommendations your computer still continues to reboot it is likely that you are experiencing a Microsoft Windows operating system related issue that cannot be explained. To help make sure this is the case try the below steps.

1.    Reboot the computer and enter CMOS setup as the computer is booting.

2.    After you have loaded the computer in CMOS setup let the computer sit.

If the computer does not reboot while letting the computer sit in CMOS it is likely that you are in fact experiencing an issue with Microsoft Windows and it is recommend that if you have followed all of the above recommendations that you reinstall Microsoft Windows.